Student Resources: Presentational Communication
Presentations are probably the most common speech communication activities in academe. SPCH 210—Principles of Public Communication is devoted to this kind of communication. A few words cannot replace a class. Nonetheless, a handful of general principles can help you when you’re called upon to present.
First, you need to understand the crucial differences between written communication and oral communication. There are many, but most grow out of two facts: first, oral communication is ephemeral—there is no text to re-read; second, oral communication is before a real audience that is offering real-time feedback that you can use to modify your performance as you’re giving it, slowing down and offering further explanation, for example. The first of these two facts lead to the second and third principles.
Second, an oral presentation should be organized in such a way that the audience very quickly discerns what the structure is and, then, knows where in the structure the speaker is. The speaker then should, if all possible, choose from readily recognized structures such as chronological, problem-solution, cause-effect, pro-con, and—in certain disciplinary contexts—background-hypotheses-data- conclusions. The speaker should also offer very explicit transitions. These transitions may be so explicit that they’d earn negative comments such as “too mechanical” from a writing teacher. And the writing teacher is, in general, right—about such very explicit transitions in written communication. However, because speech communication is ephemeral, they are recommended in oral communication.
Third, an oral presentation should have a strong, direct introduction and a strong direct conclusion. The subtlety possible in written communication often causes problems in speech communication. A useful formula for an effective presentation introduction is the following: gain attention, make statement, establish importance, establish credentials, offer preview. A useful formula for an effective presentation conclusion is the following: summarize, activate, provide closure.
Fourth, you need to know how to best handle extemporaneous speaking situations, which is what most good presentations are. They are not scripted; they are not off-the-cuff. They are carefully planned, but delivered from notes with the precise words, etc., varying from one time of delivery to another. Such a speech is best delivered with the aid of 4” X 6” or 3” X 5” index cards. Cards do not flop if you’re nervous—calling attention to your nervousness. Cards also give you the ability to match the divisions of your presentation to the cards. So matched, you visually signal to your audience (and yourself) that you’ve moved from one part of your presentation to another by changing cards. And keep the notes on the cards to a minimum: you don’t want to be tied to the precise words that appear there. Before you present, rehearse using these cards. Don’t under-rehearse, but don't over-rehearse. Either extreme can present problems!
Fifth, you need to know how to use non-verbal resources to enhance your presentation. Some non-verbal resources involve the voice—its volume, its rate, its pitch. Other non-verbal resources involve the body—such matters as movement, gesture, and eye contact. In general, keep two principles in mind: variety and no extremes. For example, don’t speak either extremely fast or extremely slowly; however, try to vary your speed, using shifts in rate to stress matters. For another example, don’t gestures non-stop and don’t stand there, arms frozen at your side. Use gestures moderately, but to a degree that fits your personality and topic. Use gestures to stress; don’t waste them on matters that aren't especially important.
Sixth, you need to know how to use visual aids. The visual aids that are available to you are numerous: the “blackboard”; poster; flip charts; transparencies projected onto a screen; slides; and powerpoint (and other presentational software). No matter whether you choose low-tech or high-tech, three basic principles apply: readability, clarity, and control.
Readability means that everyone in the room you’re speaking in can read the words and numbers on your visual aid. You shouldn’t guess that you’re ok. If at all possible, you should try your aids out in the room you’ll be speaking in or one much like it in size.
Clarity means that the point you want the visual aid to make is quickly clear to the audience. Frequently, this principle will necessitate your revising a visual in a written document for use in a presentation. When a chart, for example, is in a report, the readers can take as much time as they’d like to study its lines or bars or data. You do not, however, want your speech audience to stop listening to you in order to engage in such study. You want the visual to make your point so that you and your audience can move on together.
Control means that the visual aid is on display only when you want it to be. You don’t want it to be there before the audience’s eyes while you’re talking about something else because the audience might study the visual, not attend to you. So, introduce the visual aid at the point in the presentation when it’s useful; remove it once it’s no longer useful. In other words, control it.
Two last principles about visual aids. First, be comfortable with the aids you choose. If the aid is high tech, know how to make the technology work. Second, don’t overuse visual aids. Powerpoint makes it so easy to create professional-looking slide after slide. The result is that many are now, in essence, reading their speech off the screen—much like a teleprompter. All of the advantages of extemporaneous speaking are lost if you overuse powerpoint (or any visual aid).